How Did The Papal States Resist The Unification Of Italy?

I get a little giddy thinking about 19th‑century Italy — it’s like watching a sprawling, slow-burning epic unfold. After Napoleon fell, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 basically put the peninsula back together the way the old powers liked it: a patchwork of kingdoms and duchies (the Kingdom of Sardinia/Piedmont, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Papal States, the Austrian‑dominated Lombardy‑Veneto and assorted duchies). That restoration set the scene for decades of unrest. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s you see the spark: secret societies like the Carbonari and, from 1831 on, Giuseppe Mazzini’s Young Italy pushing nationalist and republican ideas. There were failed revolts in 1820–21 and again in 1831, and the intellectual groundwork kept growing — Mazzini, Balbo, and later Cavour all argued differently about how unification should happen. Then 1848 hits and everything explodes. Revolutions sweep the peninsula: Milan’s Five Days (March 1848), uprisings in Venice and elsewhere, Charles Albert of Sardinia fights Austria but is defeated by 1849. The Roman Republic under Mazzini and Garibaldi briefly captures imaginations in 1849 before French forces restore the Pope. The decisive political turn is in the late 1850s: Cavour engineers an alliance with Napoleon III (Plombières, 1858), leading to the 1859 war where battles at Magenta and Solferino push Austria out of Lombardy. By 1860 Garibaldi’s Expedition of the Thousand conquers Sicily and the Two Sicilies, and plebiscites fold those lands into Piedmont. On 17 March 1861 the Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed under Victor Emmanuel II, but Venetia stays with Austria until the 1866 Austro‑Prussian War when Italy gains it. Rome is the last holdout — French troops protect the Pope until the Franco‑Prussian War allows Italy to take Rome in September 1870 (breach of Porta Pia). By 1871 Rome becomes the capital. The full story isn’t tidy — there are aborted attempts (Garibaldi’s 1862 and 1867 efforts), political bargains (Savoy and Nice ceded to France), and the long Roman Question that finally formalized only decades later — but that’s the rough timeline from 1815 to Italy’s unification in the 1870s.

There are a few clashes that really stand out for me when I picture how Italy stitched itself together, and I end up thinking about battlefields and dusty museum halls the same way a gamer remembers levels. The twin blows of 1859—'Magenta' and 'Solferino'—were seismic. Piedmont-Sardinia, backed by Napoleon III, pushed the Austrians out of Lombardy after those fights, and I still get chills picturing the countryside of Lombardy on an old map I traced in a history book. Solferino in particular was horrible but decisive; its carnage even inspired Henri Dunant to found what became the Red Cross, which I always bring up when thinking about the human cost behind nation-building. Not long after, in 1860, Garibaldi’s Expedition of the Thousand felt like a different kind of war—fast, improvisational, and wildly popular. Battles like 'Calatafimi' and 'Milazzo', the storming of Palermo, and the later clash at 'Volturno' toppled the Bourbon kingdom in the south. On a rainy afternoon in a café I once sketched the route Garibaldi took, marveling at how a relatively small, motivated force altered geopolitics. Central Italy was settled by fights like 'Castelfidardo' (against the Papal troops) and then the prolonged siege of 'Gaeta' finished Bourbon resistance, while the capture of Rome at 'Porta Pia' in 1870 closed the loop. What fascinates me most is how battles and diplomacy braided together: military wins opened doors that treaties and plebiscites then walked through. Whenever I read 'The Leopard' again, I catch new shades of that messy mix of battlefield flashes and political bargaining, and it never feels tidy—just human and complicated.

Something that always grabs me when I look at 19th-century maps is how tangled Italian unification was with the ambitions of bigger powers. For decades after the 1815 Congress of Vienna, Austria basically ran northern Italy through direct rule in Lombardy–Venetia and by propping up friendly rulers elsewhere. That Austrian grip provoked most of the Italian uprisings in 1848 and set the stage for a diplomacy-heavy unification rather than a simple homegrown revolution. I got hooked on this period because of how cunning Cavour’s diplomacy was. Piedmont-Sardinia positioned itself as “the Italian partner” by joining the Crimean War and then making a splash at the Paris peace conference in 1856; those moves got Piedmont a seat at the big table. Cavour then cut his deal with Napoleon III at Plombières (1858), sacrificing rhetorical republicanism for a practical alliance: French troops helped beat Austria in 1859 and win Lombardy. That’s the classic example of foreign help that actually made unification possible, albeit imperfectly — France later insisted on protecting the Papacy, which complicated Rome’s place in a united Italy. Then the Great Power chessboard shifted again. In 1866 Italy sided with Prussia against Austria and gained Venetia as a result; later, the Franco-Prussian War (1870) pulled French troops out of Rome, letting Italy seize the city and complete its political unification. Britain mostly played a quieter, balancing role — favoring trade and stability and often sympathizing diplomatically with the Italian cause — while Russia and the Concert of Europe initially defended the status quo. So foreign powers were not just background actors: their wars, treaties, and troop movements repeatedly opened or closed the doors to unity. Every time I re-read those events I’m struck by how much realpolitik — not just idealism — built modern Italy.

I got hooked on this topic after rereading 'The Leopard' on a rainy afternoon — that novel's melancholy about the south always makes me think about concrete economic changes, not just aristocratic nostalgia. When Italy unified, it wasn't a single magic switch that created prosperity everywhere; it was more like rearranging the pieces on the board. For northern factories and merchants, unification created a single market, a single currency (the lira was adopted in 1861), and unified legal and commercial rules. That lowered transaction costs, made rail and telegraph investments more sensible, and helped places like Lombardy and Piedmont scale up industry. I’ll never forget seeing a late-19th-century trade map: goods started flowing much more freely north-to-north, and northern entrepreneurs grew bolder about exporting and investing in mechanization. But the same moves often hurt the south. The Bourbon south entered a kingdom with a new centralized tax system and the burden of national public debt; taxes rose, conscription took manpower away from farms, and state investments (railways, credit institutions) skewed toward the already-industrializing north. Land structures like latifundia and sharecropping persisted in the south, so peasants couldn’t convert market access into capital easily. Brigandage and social unrest in the 1860s and 1870s are symptoms of those disruptions — they weren’t just crime waves, they reflected economic dislocation and weak state presence. Over decades that turned into mass emigration: millions left southern ports for the Americas, which itself changed rural economies through remittances and depopulation. So in my view unification created the institutional scaffolding of a modern economy and benefited the regions poised to industrialize, while exposing and often amplifying structural weaknesses in poorer regions. The result was deeper regional divergence rather than immediate convergence, and that legacy still colors Italian regional policy debates today. It makes me wish I could travel back and hand 19th-century southern mayors a blueprint for small-scale credit cooperatives — sometimes the fix is painfully local.

I’ve always loved the messy, human side of history, and Garibaldi is the kind of figure who makes the Risorgimento feel alive. Born into a seafaring family, he became a wanderer, soldier of fortune, and passionate republican long before the big headline of 1860. In the 1849 defense of the Roman Republic he stood shoulder to shoulder with Mazzini, and after defeat he spent years in exile sharpening the guerrilla skills that would later define him. Those early hardships made him magnetic to volunteers: people saw someone who didn’t just talk about freedom but charged into the fray. The moment everyone remembers is the Expedition of the Thousand — Garibaldi’s charismatic landing in Sicily with a ragtag band of 'Redshirts'. With bold amphibious moves, lightning marches, and local uprisings, he toppled the Bourbon rule in Naples and Sicily far faster than many expected. What I find fascinating is the political choreography afterwards: instead of crowning himself, he handed his conquests to Victor Emmanuel II. That act, messy and pragmatic, paved the way for unifying northern and southern Italy under the Savoy monarchy, even though Garibaldi himself preferred a republic. He wasn’t flawless. His campaign stirred hopes among southern peasants that often went unmet, and his clashes with moderates like Cavour reveal the tensions between popular revolution and state-building. Later episodes — the Aspromonte wound in 1862 and his volunteer exploits in 1866 — show a man driven by principle and pride in equal measure. Reading his letters in a dusty library corner once, I kept thinking: he was the kind of leader who made people follow him because they believed they’d become something larger together.

I get a little giddy whenever the Risorgimento comes up in conversation — those characters are practically made for a historical crossover episode. At the center of it all were Giuseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo di Cavour, Giuseppe Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel II, but the real story is how each of them carried such different visions for Italy and kept bumping into one another. Mazzini was the firebrand idealist: founder of Young Italy, he pushed for a republican, popular uprising and inspired countless uprisings in the 1840s and ’49. Cavour, by contrast, was the sharp-eyed statesman from Piedmont-Sardinia who believed in diplomacy, economic reform, and careful alliances — he engineered the French alliance with Napoleon III that helped topple Austrian control in northern Italy. Garibaldi is the romantic soldier everyone remembers: the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860 was grassroots theatre turned reality, a volunteer army that toppled the Bourbon kingdom in the south. Victor Emmanuel II, the Sardinian king, played the pragmatic monarch who accepted unification under a crown rather than a purely republican model. You also have international players: Napoleon III’s intervention in 1859, Prussia’s siding in 1866 which helped Italy grab Venetia, and the French withdrawal in 1870 that allowed Rome to be taken. And yes, the papacy — Pope Pius IX — became a major obstacle to the final step. All together, it’s a messy, cinematic mix of idealism, realpolitik, guerilla warfare, and foreign chess moves; I always find it irresistible, like reading a political thriller with swords and flags.

Thinking about the Italian unification, I get excited seeing Cavour as the architect who used statecraft instead of heroics. He built Piedmont-Sardinia into a credible modern state first — banking reform, railways, a professional army, and a freer press — so that it wasn’t just a sentimental idea but a practical engine of unification. That groundwork let him bargain with the great powers from strength rather than rhetoric. His diplomacy was the real show: the secret talks at 'Plombières' with Napoleon III, the calculated provocation of Austria into war in 1859, and then the careful lobbying at the Congress of Paris. He didn’t want a republican revolution; he wanted unified Italy under a constitutional monarchy led by Victor Emmanuel II. So Cavour courted liberal nationalists when useful, sidelined radicals when dangerous, and engineered plebiscites to fold Lombardy, Tuscany, Parma, and Modena into Piedmont legally and quickly. What fascinates me most is the tension in his method — ruthless realism mixed with genuine reforms. He managed to outmaneuver figures like Mazzini and contain Garibaldi’s popular surge by integrating it into a state project, not crushing national fervor but channeling it. He died in 1861, just as the Italian kingdom was proclaimed, and I often wonder whether his careful balancing act could have carried Italy further if he’d lived longer. Still, his blend of modernization, military readiness, and diplomatic chess made political unification possible more than any single battlefield hero could have.

I get a little giddy thinking about this era — it's one of those history tangles where battles, salons, secret societies, and dull treaties all braid together. Early on, the Napoleonic wars shook the old map: French rule brought legal reforms, bureaucratic centralization, and a taste of modern administration to many Italian states. When the Congress of Vienna (1815) tried to stitch the pre-Napoleonic order back together, it left a lot of people restless; the contrast between modern reforms and restored conservative rulers actually fanned nationalist feeling. A string of insurrections and intellectual movements built that feeling into momentum. The Carbonari and the revolts of the 1820s and 1830s, plus Mazzini’s Young Italy, pushed nationalism and republicanism into public life. The 1848 revolutions were a critical turning point: uprisings across the peninsula, the short-lived Roman Republic in 1849, and the first Italian War of Independence taught both rulers and revolutionaries what worked and what didn’t. I always picture that year like a fever — hopeful and chaotic at once. After the failures of 1848, unification took a more pragmatic turn. Piedmont-Sardinia under a savvy statesman pursued diplomacy and selective warfare: the Crimean War participation, Cavour’s Plombières negotiations with Napoleon III, and the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859 (battles like Solferino) led to Lombardy moving toward Sardinia. Then came the wild, romantic energy of Garibaldi’s Expedition of the Thousand in 1860 — Sicily and Naples flipped to the unification project almost overnight. Plebiscites, treaties like Turin, and later the 1866 alignment with Prussia that won Venetia, plus the 1870 capture of Rome when French troops withdrew, finished the puzzle. Walking through Rome or reading 'The Leopard' makes those moments feel alive: unification was a messy mix of idealism, realpolitik, foreign influence, and popular revolt, not a single clean event, and that complexity is exactly why I love studying it.